CHAPTER 01
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
KEY CONCEPTS;
Frederic Sorrieu
He
was a French artist famous for prints prepared in 1848 that visualized the
dream of a world consisting of Democratic and Social Republics.
Nineteenth Century
Associated
with the rise of nationalism and nation states.
Nationalism
A
feeling of oneness with the society or the state, love and devotion for the
motherland and belief in the political identity of one’s country are the basic
attributes of nationalism.
Nation State
A
state that establishes itself as a separate political and geographical entity
and functions as a complete and sovereign territorial unit. This concept
emerged in 19th century Europe as a result of the growth of nationalism.
Modern State
A
state in which sovereignty is exercised by a centralized power over a specific
territory and population.
Absolutist Government
A
system of government wherein limitless powers are vested in a single person or
body. It is a monarchical form of government in which the ruler is the absolute
authority and is not answerable to anybody.
FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789)
It
marks the beginning of nationalism. Salient features of the French Revolution
were:
v France was under
absolute monarchy in 1789.
v The Revolution
transferred the sovereignty from the monarch to the French people.
v Ideas of La
patrie (the fatherhood) and Le citoyen (the citizen) adopted.
v New French Flag,
the tricolour, adopted replacing the royal standard.
v Estates General
elected by citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
v A centralized
political system established.
v Internal custom
dues abolished.
v Uniform weights
and measures adopted.
v French became
the language of the nation.
v French armies
moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in the 1790s with a promise
of liberating the people from their despotic rulers.
NAPOLEON (1769-1821)
v Ruled France
from 1799 to 1815.
v Assumed absolute
powers in 1799 by becoming the First Consul.
CIVIL CODE/NAPOLEONIC CODE (1804)
Features of Napoleonic Code
§ Established
equality before law.
§ Abolished all
privileges based on birth.
§ Granted the
right to property to French citizens.
§ Simplified
administrative divisions.
§ Abolished feudal
system and freed peasants from serfdom.
§ Removed
restrictions on guilds in towns.
§ Improved
transport and communication.
Militarily, Napoleon proved to be an oppressor for the people
of the conquered territories. Taxation and censorship were imposed and military
services were made mandatory.
EUROPE IN THE MID-18TH CENTURY
v No nation states
because Europeans never saw themselves as sharing a common identity or culture.
E.g., The Habsburg Empire of Austria–Hungary comprised French, Italian and
German-speaking people.
v Europe was
broadly divided into two classes during this period namely:
Aristocracy
Ø The land owning class.
Ø Numerically small, but dominated Europe, both
socially and politically.
Ø Spoke French which was considered the language
of the high society.
Ø Families were connected through marriage.
Peasantry
§ Tenants and
small land owners who worked as serfs.
§ Cultivated the
lands of the aristocratic lords.
§ The growth of
trade and industrial production facilitated the growth of towns and rise of a
commercial class of traders.
Consequently, the new conscious, educated, liberal middle class emerged and
popularized nationalism and stood for the abolition of aristocracy.
LIBERAL NATIONALISM
Means:
§ Individual
freedom
§ Equality before
law
§ Government by
consent
§ Freedom of
markets
§ Abolition of
state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital
Liberalism became the main concern in
Europe after the French Revolution because:
Ø Universal Adult Suffrage was not granted to
the people by the Napoleonic Code. Men without property and women were denied
the right to vote.
Ø Women were made
subject to the authority of men.
Ø Markets were not free as the 39 confederacies
of France had their own laws which posed problems for the free movement of
goods.
Ø There were no
standard weights and measures and no fixed rates of custom duties, which
greatly affected the trade.
Liberalism fused with
the French Revolution envisaged the-
Ø End of autocracy
and clerical privileges
Ø Introduction of
a constitution and representative government
Ø Inviolability of private property
Ø Removal of trade restrictions
Ø Freedom of markets
ZOLLVEREIN
A
customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia. It abolished
tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies to two from over thirty.
CONSERVATISM
Stands
for the preservation of the traditional institutions of state and society such
as the monarchy, the church, social hierarchies and family along with the
modern changes introduced by Napoleon. Conservatism as a political ideology
arose after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo. The
conservative regimes
v Were autocratic
v Were intolerant
to criticism and dissent
v Adopted the
censorship of press for curbing the liberal ideals
v Discouraged any
questions that challenged their legitimacy
CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815)
For
drawing a new settlement for Europe and restoring the monarchies that were
overthrown by Napoleon for creation of a new conservative order. The
salient features of the treaty were as follows:
o
The Bourbon dynasty restored to power in France.
o
France was disposed of its conquered territories.
o
Kingdom of Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in
the North and Genoa was set up in the South for preventing French expansion in
future.
o
Prussia was given new territories, including a portion of
Saxony.
o
Austria got control over Northern Italy.
o
Russia got Poland.
o
Napoleon’s confederation of 39 states was not changed.
THE REVOLUTIONARIES
Upholders
of the idea of liberalism and against the conservative regimes of the 19th
century. Many secret societies were formed whose main aims were:
o
Training the revolutionaries and spreading their ideas
throughout Europe.
o
Opposing monarchical governments established after the Vienna
Congress of 1815.
o
Fighting for liberty and freedom from autocratic rule.
o
Emphasizing the idea of creation of nation states.
GIUSEPPE MAZZINI
o
Italian revolutionary
o
Born in 1807.
o
Became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
o
1831: Sent into exile for attempting an upsurge in Liguria.
o
Founder of Young Italy at Marseilles and Young
Europe at Berne, the two secret societies.
o
Believed in the unification of Italy into a republic.
o
Most vociferous enemy of monarchical form of government and
conservative regimes.
o
Metternich described him as “The most dangerous enemy of our social
order”.
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS (1830-1848)
o
The consolidation of power by the conservative regime made
liberalism and nationalism associated with revolution in many regions of
Europe.
o
Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman
Empire, Ireland and Poland experienced such revolutions.
o
The revolutionaries comprised professors, school teachers,
clerks and members of the commercial middle class.
JULY REVOLUTION, FRANCE (1830)
v The Bourbon
Kings, coronated after the Vienna Congress of 1815 were overthrown by
liberal revolutionaries.
v Louis Philippe
was installed as a constitutional monarch.
v Belgium broke
away from the United Kingdom of Netherlands.
GREEK REVOLUTION (1830)
v Greek War of
Independence
v Greece was part
of the Ottoman Empire since 15th century.
v Growth of
nationalism in Europe started Greek‟s struggle for independence from the
Ottoman rule in 1821.
v Support from
West European countries.
v Poets and
artists, who were inspired by the ancient Greek culture and literature, also
supported the revolution. E.g., Lord Byron, the famous English Poet.
v 1832: The Treaty
of Constantinople recognized Greece as an independent nation.
ROMANTICISM (1830S)
A cultural movement that rejected science and reason and
introduced heart and emotions. The concern of the romantics was to create a
sense of shared collective heritage and a common cultural past for arousing
nationalism.
o
German philosopher and romanticist Johann Gottfried Herder
(1744-1803) believed that true German culture can be discovered only among
common people (das volk) through their practice of flock traditions.
o
Emphasized on vernacular languages and folklore for conveying
their ideas to illiterate masses.
NATIONALISTIC FEELING (1830s)
The sense of recognizing the society and nation as “we” and
the sharing of many traits by its members. Culture with art and poetry, stories
and music played a major role in the shaping and expression of nationalistic
feelings and nation.
ECONOMIC CONDITION OF EUROPE AFTER 1830
ü Great economic
hardships were experienced in Europe.
ü The ratio of the
rise of population was larger than that of employment generation.
ü Migration of
rural population to cities led to overcrowded slums.
ü Small producers
in towns (especially textile producing industries) were often ousted by the
import of cheap machine-made goods from England.
ü Peasants still
suffered under the burden of feudal dues and obligations in some regions of
Europe.
ü Rise in food
prices or a year of bad harvest left the country poorer.
1848, FRANCE
v Widespread food
shortages and widespread unemployment experienced in Paris.
v Barricades were
made and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
v National
Assembly proclaimed a Republic.
v Suffrage to all
males above 21 was granted.
v The right to
work was guaranteed.
v National
workshops for providing employment were set up.
1845, Silesia
Ø Weavers revolted
against contractors for the drastic reduction in their payments.
Ø This revolution
received scorns and threats alternately and resulted in the death of eleven
weavers.
1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
A revolution led by the educated middle
classes.
GERMANY, 1848
Large
number of political associations whose members were professionals, businessmen
and prosperous artisans decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly in
Frankfurt.
18th May 1848: 831 elected representatives marched to take their places in
the Frankfurt Parliament.
They drafted a Constitution for a German
nation based on constitutional monarchy.
v Their demands
were rejected by the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV as he
opposed the elected assembly along with the other monarchs.
v The parliament
functioned to evade the larger interests of the workers and artisans as it was
largely dominated by middle class members.
v Ultimately,
troops forcibly disbanded the assembly.
Liberal Movement and Women Rights
Ø In spite of all these efforts by the women,
they still were only allowed to observe the functioning of the Frankfurt
parliament.
Ø Women opposed this by founding newspapers,
forming political associations and organizing public meetings and
organizations.
Ø They were denied
the right to vote.
Consequences of Liberal Movement
v Liberal movements were crushed by the powerful
conservative forces. However, old order could not be restored.
v Monarchs realized the importance of granting
concessions to the liberal nationalist revolutionaries for preventing unrest in
the society.
v Serfdom and bonded labour were abolished both
in Habsburg dominions and in Russia.
v Hungarians were granted more autonomy in 1867.
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY (1866-1871)
Ø In 1848,
middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation
into a nation state under an elected parliament.
Ø In Prussia,
nation building acts were repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and
the military and were supported by the landowners (“Junkers”).
Ø Prussia took
over the leadership of the movement for national unification.
Ø Otto Von
Bismark, chief minister of Prussia, was the architect of the leading
role of Prussia in the process of nation-building.
Ø Prussia emerged
victorious after fighting three wars over seven years against the combined
forces of Austria, Denmark and France and the process of unification of Germany
was completed.
Ø 18th January
1871: The
new German empire headed by the German Emperor Kaiser William I was
declared in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.
Ø The unification
of Germany established Prussian dominance in Europe.
Ø The New German
Empire focused on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial
systems.
UNIFICATION OF ITALY
A long history of political fragmentation was
experienced in Italy.
Italy during the middle of the nineteenth century
v Was divided into seven states.
v Only
Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
v The North was
under Austrian Habsburgs.
v The centre was
under Pope.
v The South was
under the Bourbon Kings of Spain.
Italian language had varieties of
dialects; therefore, it was not stable in its form.
DURING THE 1830S
v Giuseppe Mazzini
formed
a coherent program for uniting the Italian Republic.
v Also, formed a secret society called Young
Italy.
v Failure of the 1831 and 1848 revolutionary
uprisings prompted King Victor Emmanuel II from Sardinia-Piedmont
to unify the Italian states.
v Chief Minister
of Sardinia-Piedmont, Count Cavour, led the movement for the
unification of Italy.
1859: Sardinia-Piedmont with an alliance with France defeated the
Austrian forces. Large number of people under the leadership of Giuseppe
Garibaldi joined the movement.
o
1860: Sardinia-Piedmont‟s forces marched into south Italy and the
Kingdom of the Two Scillies and drove out the Spanish rulers.
o
1861: Victor Emanuel was declared as
the king of united Italy and Rome was declared the capital of Italy.
BRITAIN AS A NATION
o
Britain was not a nation state prior to 18th century. The
primary identities were based on ethnicity such as English, Welsh, Scot or
Irish.
o
The steady growth of power made the English nation extend its
influence over the other nations and islands.
o
1688: England established as a nation state. English parliament
seized power from the monarchy.
o
1707: The United Kingdom of Great Britain formed with the Act of
the Union between England and Scotland.
o
England dominated Scotland and Ireland in all spheres.
British Parliament was dominated by English members.
o
1801: Ireland was forcibly taken by the British after the failed
revolution led by Wolfe and his United Irishmen (1798).
o
A new „British Nation‟ was formed with her various symbols
such as the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (“God Save Our Noble
King”) and the English language.
VISUALISING THE NATION
v Nation was
personified in the female form by the artists of the 19th century.
v Female
allegories such as that of liberty, justice and republic were invented.
v In France, the
idea of a people’s nation was the christened Marianne. She was characterized by
the ideas of liberty and republic.
v In Germany,
Germania became the allegory of the nation.
NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
Nationalism
culminated into imperialism in the last quarter of the 19th century.
THE BALKANS IN EUROPE AFTER 1871
v The Balkans
comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia,
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
v The
disintegration of the ruling Ottoman Empire and the spread of the ideas of
romantic nationalism made this area explosive.
v The European
subject nationalities started breaking from its control to declare
independence.
v The Balkan
revolutionaries‟ acts were directed to gain back the long-lost independence.
v The Balkan
States were fiercely jealous of each other and wanted to gain more territory at
the expense of the other.
v There was
intense rivalry among the European powers over trade, colonies, naval might and
military might. European powers such as Russia, Germany, England and
Austro-Hungary were keen on opposing the hold of other powers over the Balkans
for extending their own area of control.
v All these events
ultimately triggered the First World War (1914).
v Nationalism
stained with imperialism led Europe to disaster.
v Many colonized
countries in the world started to oppose imperial domination.
v The
anti-imperialist movements developed as nationalist movements.
Thanks sir
ReplyDeleteSir where is geography and economics summary??
ReplyDeleteAFTER TWO THREE DAYS U WILL GET
ReplyDeleteOk sir
DeleteSir,
Deletewhy the summary of nationalism in India is not here?
Saba Parveen
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