Department of Social Science
HISTORY
(X)
SOCIAL SCIENCE
NATIONALISM
IN INDIA
Chapter
02
NATIONALISM-
Nationalism is the Feeling of Oneness
among the people living in a territory.
EFFECTS
OF FIRST WORLD WAR:
The War
led to a huge increase in defence expenditure. This was financed by war loans
and by increasing taxes. Customs duties were raised and income tax was introduced
to raise extra revenue. Prices of food grains increased during the war years.
The prices doubled between 1913 and 1918. The common people were the worst
sufferers because of price rise. Forced recruitment of rural
people in the army was another cause of widespread anger among people.
Crop
failure in many parts of India resulted in acute shortage of food. Influenza
epidemic further aggravated the problem. According to 1921 census, about 12
to 13 million people died because of famines and epidemic.
In Such
critical Social Conditions, a new leader Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
(1869-1948) Appeared. He suggested a new Method of Action, and He was Popularly
Known as Bapu or Mahatma Gandhi.
In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to India. Later Gandhiji
organised Satyagraha Movements in Champaran, Bihar (1916),
Kheda district of Gujarat (1917) and amongst cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad
(1918).
THE IDEA OF
SATYAGRAHA
Mahatma
Gandhi advocated a novel method of mass agitation; called satyagraha. This
method was based on the idea that if someone is fighting for a true cause,
there is no need to take recourse to physical force to fight the oppressor.
Gandhiji believed that a satyagrahi could win a battle through non-violence,
i.e. without being aggressive or revengeful.
Some early
Satyagraha movements organized by Gandhi:
1. Champaran Movement (1916)-In 1916 Gandhi Travelled to Champaran in
Bihar to inspire the peasants to struggle against the Oppressive Plantation system.
Here Indigo Plantation workers were oppressed to grow Indigo and sell it
at price fixed by British
2. Kheda Movement (1917)-In 1917 Crops failed in kheda
District of Gujarath,People were suffering from Shortage of food and Epidemic
so they demanded Tax relaxation or Reduction in the land Revenue.But British
Refused their Demands. Gandhi Advised People to No need to Pay Revenue till
their Demands of its remission was met.as the result of Protest Government
Issued Instructions that Revenue should be recovered only from those peasants
who could afford to pay.Sardar Vallabhhai Patel Accompanied
Gandhiji in this Movement.
3. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)-In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi Interfered in a
Dispute between Workers and Cotton Mill owners of Ahmedabad.He Advised the
Workers to go on Strike till their Demands were met.
THE ROWLATT
ACT (1919)The Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in
1919. The Indian members did not support the Act, but it was passed;
nevertheless. The Act gave enormous powers to the government to
repress political activities. It allowed detention of political prisoners
without trial for two years.
On 6th
April, 1919; Gandhiji launched a nationwide Satyagraha against the proposed
Rowlatt Act. The call of strike on 6th April got huge response. People came out
in support in various cities, shops were shut down and workers in railway
workshops went on strike. The British administration decided to clamp down on
the nationalists. Several local leaders were arrested. Mahatma Gandhi was
barred from entering Delhi.
JALLIANWALLA
BAGH
On 10th
April 1919; in Amritsar; the police fired upon a peaceful procession. This
provoked widespread attacks on government establishments. Martial law was
imposed in Amritsar and the command of the area was given to General Dyer.
The
infamous Jallianwalla Bagh massacre took place on 13th April; the
day on which Baisakhi is celebrated in Punjab. A crowd of
villagers came to participate in a fair in Jallianwalla Bagh. This was enclosed
from all sides with narrow entry points. General Dyer blocked the exit
points and opened fire on the crowd. Hundreds of people were killed in
the incident. Public reaction to the incident took a violent turn in many north
Indian towns. The government was quite brutal in its response. Things took
highly violent turn. Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement as did not want
violence to continue.
Need of
Wider Spread of Movement:
The Rowlatt satyagraha was limited mainly to the cities and towns. Mahatma Gandhi felt the need of a more broad-based movement in India. He was convinced that it could be only possible by bringing the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform.
The Rowlatt satyagraha was limited mainly to the cities and towns. Mahatma Gandhi felt the need of a more broad-based movement in India. He was convinced that it could be only possible by bringing the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform.
KHILAFAT
MOVEMENT
The Khilafat issue gave him
the opportunity to bring the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform. The Ottoman
Turkey was badly defeated in the First World War. There were rumours about
a harsh peace treating likely to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor; who was the
spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa). A Khilafat
committed was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to defend the Khalifa. This
committee had leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.
They also wanted Mahatma Gandhi to take up the cause to build a united mass
action. At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, the
resolution was passed to launch a non-cooperation movement in support of
Khilafat and also for swaraj.
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
In his famous book Hind
Swaraj (1909) Mahatma Gandhi declared that British rule was
established in India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survived only
because of this cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in
India would collapse within a year, and swaraj would come. Gandhiji
believed that if Indians begin to refuse to cooperate, the British rulers will
have no other way than to leave India.
Some of the proposals of
non-cooperation movement:
- Surrender the titles which were awarded by the
British government.
- Boycott civil services, army, police, courts,
legislative councils and schools.
- Boycott foreign goods.
- Launch full civil disobedience campaign, if the
government persisted with repressive measures.
Differing Strands within the
Movement: The
Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921. Various social groups
participated in this movement, each with its own specific aspiration. All of
them responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term meant different things to
different people.
THE MOVEMENT IN THE TOWNS:
- The movement started with good participation from
the middle-class in the cities.
- Thousands of students left government-controlled
schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave
up their legal practices.
- The council elections were boycotted in most
provinces except Madras. In Madras, the Justice Party, the party of the
non-Brahmans, felt that entering the council was one way of gaining some
power – something that usually only Brahmans had access to.
- Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shops picketed,
and foreign cloth burnt in huge bonfires. The import of foreign cloth
halved between 1921 and 1922, its value dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs
57 crore. The boycott of foreign cloths helped in increasing the demand of
cloths made in India.
Reasons for Slowdown of
Movement:
- Khadi was more expensive than mill-made cloth. The
poor people could not afford to buy khadi.
- Boycott of British institutions posed a problem of
lack of alternative Indian institutions. Such institutions were slow to
come up. Students and teachers began coming back schools. Similarly,
lawyers resumed their work in the courts.
Rebellion in the Countryside: From the cities, the
Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the countryside. It drew into its fold the
struggles of peasants and tribals which were developing in different parts of
India in the years after the war.
AWADH MOVEMENT
The peasants’ movement in Awadh
was led by Baba Ramchandra. He was a ‘sanyasi’ who had
earlier worked in Fiji as an indentured labourer. The peasants
were against the high rents and may other cess
Which were demanded by
talukdars and landlords. The peasants demanded reduction of revenue, abolition
of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
Jawaharlal Nehru began touring
the villages in June 1920. He tried to understand the problems of the peasants.
Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up by October. It was headed by Jawaharlal
Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and a few others. By associating
itself with the peasants’ movement, Congress was able to integrate the movement
in Awadh with a wider non-cooperation movement. At many places, people stopped
paying rents by invoking the name of the Mahatma.
TRIBAL PEASANTS
Tribal peasants gave their own
interpretation of Mahatma Gandhi and the idea of swaraj. The tribals were
prevented from entering the forests to graze cattle, or to collect fruits and
firewood. The new forest laws were a threat to their livelihood. The government
forced them to do begar on road construction.
Many rebels from the tribal
areas became non-violent and often carried guerilla warfare against the British
officials. (Remember the Case of Alluri Sitaram Raju)
SWARAJ IN THE
PLANTATIONS
The
plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without
permission; as per the Indian Inland Emigration Act of 1859. When the
news of Non-Cooperation Movement spread to the plantations, many workers began
to defy the authorities. They left plantations and headed towards their homes.
But they got stranded on the way because of a railway and steamer strike. They
were caught by the police and brutally beaten up.
Many
analysts are of the opinion that the vision of the movement was not properly
defined by the Congress. Different people interpreted the term ‘Swaraj’ in
their own ways. For them, Swaraj meant an end to all their problems. However,
people from various strata of society began to chant the name of Gandhi and the
slogan of ‘Swatantra Bharat’. In some way or the other, they were
trying to relate to the wider movement which was beyond their comprehension.
CIVIL
DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
By the end
of 1921, the movement was turning violent at many places. Gandhiji decided to
withdraw the non-cooperation movement in February 1922. Even many
Congress leaders were fatigued by mass struggles and wanted to participate in
the elections to the provincial councils. The provincial councils were set up
by the Government of India Act of 1919. Many leaders were of the opinion that
it was important to oppose the British policies by becoming a part of the
system.
The older
leaders; like Motilal Nehru and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party (within
the Congress) and began to argue for a return to council politics.
The younger leaders; like
Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru; were in favour of more radical mass
agitation and pressed for full independence.
This was a period of internal
debate and dissension within the Congress. This was also the period when the
effect of the Great Depression was being felt on India. Agricultural prices
began to fall from 1926. The prices collapsed in 1930. The whole country was in
turmoil because of the effects of Great Depression.
SIMON COMMISSION
The
British government constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon.
The commission was made to look into the functioning of the constitutional
system in India and suggest changes. But since all the members in the
commission were British, the Indian leaders opposed the commission.
The Simon
Commission arrived in India in 1928. It was greeted with the slogan ‘Go
back Simon’. All parties joined the protest. In October 1929, Lord
Irwin announced a vague offer of ‘dominion status’ for
India but its timing was not specified. He also offered to hold a Round Table
Conference to discuss the future constitution.
The
radical leaders within the Congress became more assertive. They were not
satisfied with the British proposal. The liberals and moderates were in favour
of the dominion status, but they were losing their influence in Congress.
In
December 1929, the Lahore Congress was presided over by Jawaharlal
Nehru. It passed the resolution of ‘PURNA SWARAJ’ or FULL
INDEPENDENCE FOR INDIA. It declared 26th January 1930
as the Independence Day and gave a call to the people to take a
pledge to struggle for complete independence. But the celebrations attracted
little public support.
It was
then left to Mahatma Gandhi to correlate the abstract idea of freedom to more
concrete issues of everyday life.
SALT
MARCH
Mahatma
Gandhi believed that salt could be a powerful symbol to unite the whole nation.
Most of the people; including the British scoffed at the idea. Abolition of the
salt tax was among many demands which were raised by Gandhiji through a letter
to Viceroy Irwin.
The Salt
March or Dandi March was started by Gandhiji on 12th March 1930. He was
accompanied by 78 volunteers. They walked for 24 days to cover a
distance of 240 miles from Sabaramati to Dandi.
Many more joined them in the way. On 6th April 1930, Gandhiji
ceremonially violated the law by taking a fistful of salt.
The Salt
March marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Thousands
of people broke the salt law in different parts of country. People demonstrated
in front of government salt factories. Foreign cloth was boycotted. Peasants
refused to pay revenue. Village officials resigned. Tribal people violated
forest laws.
RESPONSE
OF BRITISH RULERS
The
colonial government began to arrest the Congress leaders. This led to violent
clashes in many places. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested about a month later. People
began to attack the symbols of British rule; such as police posts, municipal
buildings, law courts and railway stations. The government’s repression was
quite brutal. Even women and children were beaten up. About 100,000
people were arrested.
MEANING
OF THE MOVEMENT FOR DIFFERENT GROUPS
Different
People / Different social groups Participated in Civil Disobedience Movement for
different Ideals or Reasons. Meaning of ‘Swaraj’ was Different for Different
Social Groups.
FOR RICH
PEASANTS- Fight against High Revenue.
In the
Country side Rich peasant communities like Patidars of Gujarath and the Jats of
Utter Pradesh Were Active in the Movement. They organized their Communities to Participate
in Boycott Programmes.
But they
were Deeply Disappointed when the movement was called off in 1931 without the
revenue rates being revised.
FOR POOR
PEASANTS- No Rent Movement.
Poor
Peasantry found it Difficult to pay their Rent to the Landlords. The small tenants just wanted the unpaid rent to the landlord to
be remitted. They often joined the radical movements which were led by
Socialists and Communists. Congress did not want to alienate the rich landlords
and hence, the relationship between the poor peasants and Congress was
uncertain.
FOR
BUSINESSMEN/INDUSTRIALISTS
The Indian merchants and industrialists could grow their business
during the First World War. They were against those colonial policies which
restricted their business activities. They wanted protection against imports
and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio which would discourage imports. The
Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress was formed in 1920 and the
Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) was formed
in 1927. These were the results of attempts to bring the common
business interests on a common platform.
For the businessmen, ‘Swaraj’
meant an end to oppressive colonial policies. They wanted an environment which
could allow the business to flourish. They were apprehensive of militant
activities and of growing influence of socialism among the younger members of
the Congress.
FOR INDUSTRIAL WORKERS
The industrial workers showed lukewarm response to the Civil
Disobedience Movement. Since industrialists were closer to the Congress,
workers kept a distance from the movement. But some workers selectively
participated in the Movement. Congress did not want to alienate the
industrialists and hence preferred to keep the workers’ demands at bay.
WOMEN’S
PARTICIPATION IN CDM
Womens
were inspired by Mahatma Gandhiji. Women also participated in the Civil
Disobedience Movement in large numbers. However, most of the women were from
high-caste families in the urban areas and from rich peasant households in the
rural areas. But for a long time, the Congress was reluctant to give any
position of authority to women within the organization. The Congress was just
keen on the symbolic presence of women.
ROUND
TABLE CONFERENCE
When
things began to take a violent turn, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement. He
signed a pact with Irwin on 5th March 1931. This was called the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact. As per the Pact, Gandhiji agreed to participate in the Round Table
Conference in London. In lieu of that, the government agreed to release the
political prisoners.
Gandhiji
went to London in December 1931. The negotiations broke down and
Gandhiji had to return with disappointment.
When Gandhiji came back to India, he found
that most of the leaders were put in jail. Congress had been declared illegal.
Many measures were taken to prevent meetings, demonstrations and boycotts.
Mahatma Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement. By 1934, the movement
had lost its momentum.
THE
LIMITS OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
Participation
of Dalits
For Long
time,Congress had Ignored the Dalits for fear of offending the ‘Sanatanis,the
Conservative High Caste Hindus. Gandhiji Called Dalits Harijan or
Children of God
Gandhi
Believed that Swaraj Would not come for hundred years If Untouchability was not
eliminated.
Gandhiji
Organised Sathygraha for Harijans to Secure their Entry into Temples and Access
to Public wells,Tanks,Roads and Schools.
Gandhi
Himself Cleaned the Toilets to Dignify the Works of ‘Bhangi’(Sweepers).Gandhi
Urged the Upper class to Change Their Mind-set Regarding the Untouchables.
Many Dalit
leaders wanted a different political solution to the problems of the Dalit
community. They demanded reserved seats in educational institutions and
separate electorate for Dalits. Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience
Movement was limited.
Dr. B R
Ambedkar organized the Dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930. He
clashed with Mahatma Gandhi; during the second Round Table Conference; on the
issue of separate electorate for Dalits.
When the
British government conceded Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhji began a fast unto death.
Finally Ambedkar had to accept Gandhiji’s position. This resulted in signing of
the Poona Pact of September 1932. It made the provision for
reserved seats for the Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislative
councils. But the voting was to be done by the general electorate.
Participation
of Muslims
After the
decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, a large section of Muslims
became alienated from the Congress. From the mid-1920s, the Congress was more
visibly associated with the Hindu religious nationalist groups.
The Congress and the Muslim League tried to renegotiate and
alliance. Muhammad Ali Jinnah was an important leader of the
Muslim League. He was willing to give up the demand for separate electorate.
But he wanted reserved seats for Muslims in the Central Assembly. He also
wanted representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated
provinces (Punjab and Bengal). At the All Parties Conference in 1928, M R
Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha strongly opposed the efforts at
compromise. This further alienated the Muslims from the Congress.
THE
SENSE OF COLLECTIVE BELONGING
Nationalism
spreads when people begin to believe that they are all part of the same nation,
when they discover some unity that binds them together. The united struggles
for independence helped in building the sense of collective belonging.
Additionally, a variety of cultural processes also captured the spirit of
nationalism.
Nation
Depicted in Images: The identity of the nation is most often symbolised in a
figure or image; with which people can identify the nation. The image of Bharat
Mata was the pictorial representation of the mother land. ‘Vande
Mataram’ the national song was written by Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay in 1870s. This was sung during the Swadeshi movement in
Bengal. Different artists projected their own version of Bharat Mata.
Folklores: Many
nationalist leaders took help of folk tales to spread the idea of nationalism.
It was believed that the folk tales revealed the true picture of traditional
culture.( Bengal Region –Rabindranath Tagore) and in south India, Madras
Natesa Sastri,His Famous Book ‘Folklore of Southern India.
National
Flag: The national flag which we see today has evolved through
various stages. A tricolour (Red, Green and Yellow) was used
during the Swadeshi movement. There were eight lotuses on it which depicted the
eight provinces of British India. There was a crescent moon on the flag which
represented Hindus and Muslims. Gandhji had designed the Swaraj flag by
1921. It was also a tricolour (Red, Green and White) and there
was a spinning wheel in the centre.
Reinterpretation
of History: Many Indians felt that the British had given a different
interpretation of the Indian history. They felt that it was important to
interpret the history from an Indian perspective. They wanted to glorify the
rich past of India so that the Indians could feel proud of their history.
The Congress Under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhiji Tried to Channel Peoples Sufferings into
Organized and united Movement for Independence.
MAP RELATED EXPECTED QUESTIONS FOR BOARD EXAM
1. Indian National Congress Sessions:
a.Bombay (1885) – President W C Bannerji/
/ Founder of Congress A O
Hume.
b.Culcutta (1886) – President Dadabhai Naoroji.
c.Lucknow (1916) – President A C majundar
d. Amritsar ( 1919) – President Motilal Nehru
e. Calcutta (Sep. 1920)
f. Nagpur (Dec. 1920)
g. Madras (1927)
h.Lahore (1929) Jawahar Lal
Nehru ( Poorna Swaraj Resolution Passed)
2. Important Centres of Indian National Movement
a. Champaran (Bihar) - Movement of Indigo
Planters
b. Kheda (Gujrat) - Peasant Satyagrah
c. Ahmedabad (Gujarat) - Cotton Mill Workers
Satyagraha
d. Amritsar (Punjab) - Jallianwala Bagh
Incident
e. Chauri Chaura (U.P.) - Calling off the
Non-Cooperation Movement
f. Dandi (Gujarat) - Civil Disobedience Movement
