MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES SUMMARY

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

GEOGRAPHY(X)

CHAPTER 05

MINERALS-A homogeneous, naturally occurring substance with definable internal structure is called mineral.

MINING- Economic activity of extraction of minerals from below the earth’s surface is called Mining.

Use of Minerals in Daily Life

·         Materials of daily use are made of minerals like tooth Paste Contains Silica,Limestone,Phosphate,etc.

·         They are also needed by our body.

·         They are basis of all economic Activities.

Mode of occurrence of minerals:

Minerals are Usually found in Ores. An Ore is a naturally occurring meterial having one or more Minerals in sufficient concentration mixed with other elements.

Minerals Generally Occur in these forms:

1. In Igneous and metamorphic rocks: The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger occurrences are called lodes. They are usually formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms are forced upwards through cavities towards the earth’s surface. Examples: tin, copper, zinc, lead, etc.
2. In Sedimentary rocks: In these rocks, minerals occur in beds or layers. Coal, iron ore, gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt are the minerals found in sedimentary rocks.
3. By decomposition of surface rocks: Decomposition of surface rocks and removal of soluble constituents leaves a residual mass of weathered material which contains ores. Bauxite is formed in this way.
4. As Alluvial deposits: These minerals are found in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called placer deposits. They generally contain those minerals which are not corroded by water. Examples; gold, silver, tin, platinum, etc.
5. In Ocean water: Most of the minerals in ocean water are too widely diffused to be of economic importance. But common salt, magnesium and bromine are mainly derived from ocean waters.

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN INDIA

India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied Mineral Resources, but these resources are unevenly distributed;

Ø  Peninsular Plateau: Peninsular Rocks contain Most of the reserve of Coal, Metallic Minerals,Mica,Non Ferrous minerals and Non Metallic Minerals

Ø  Gujarat and Assam: Sedimentary rocks in Gujarat and Assam have Most of Petroleum Deposits.

Ø  Rajastan: It has Reserve of many Non Ferrous Minerals.

Ø  Northern Plains: There is very little or No economic Minerals in vast Alluvial Plains of North India.

Most of the Minerals in India are Nationalized and their mining is only possible only after obtaining due permission from Government.

But in most of the tribal areas of North East India Minerals are owned by Individuals or Communities.

In Meghalaya There are large deposits of Coal, Iron Ore, Limestone…etc Coal Mining In Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family members in the form of a Long Narrow tunnel, Known as RAT HOLE MINING.

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

1. Metallic
1. Ferrous (containing iron): Iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt, etc.
2. Non-ferrous: Copper, lead, tin, bauxite, etc.
3. Precious: Gold, silver, platinum, etc.
2. Non-metallic: Mica, salt, potash, sulphur, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, etc.
3. Energy Minerals: Coal, petroleum and natural gas

METALLIC MINERALS.

Minerals containing metals are called metallic minerals. Like Gold,Silver,Tungsten,etc

1    FERROUS MINERALS

Minerals having Iron Content Are called ferrous Minerals.India Exports fairly  large amount of ferrous minerals.These minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical Industries.

IRON ORE

Iron ore is the basic mineral and the backbone of industrial development.India is rich in good quality iron ores. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron upto 70%. This iron ore is valuable for the electrical industry because of its excellent magnetic properties. Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore; in terms of usage. The iron content of hematite is 50-60%.

Major Iron Ore Belts in India

• Orissa Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts of Orissa have high grade hematite ore. Additionally, hematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi in Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
• Durg Bastar Chandrapur Belt: This belt lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh have very high grade hematite ore. This hilly range has 14 deposits of super high grade hematite ore. Iron from these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakapatnam port.
• Bellary Chitradurga Chikmaglur Tumkur Belt: This belt lies in Karnataka. The Kudremukh mines located in the Western Ghats are a 100 percent export unit. The ore from these mines is transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.
• Maharashtra Goa Belt: This belt inculdes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. The ores in these mines are not of very high quality. They are exported through Marmagao port.

MANGANESE

Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. It is also used in making bleaching powder, insecticides and paints. Nearly 10 kg of Manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of Steel. India Ranks fifth in the world in the production of manganese.Oddisha is the largest Producer of Manganese Ores in India(2010).

2)      NON FERROUS MINRALS

Minerals that do not contain iron content are called non-ferrous minerals. India has only a few reserve of non ferrous minerals. These minerals provide strong base for Metallurgical industry, engineering industry and electrical industry. E.g Copper,Lead,Zinc,Bauxite,gold etc.

COPPER

Copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries. Leading producer Khetri mines in Rajastan.The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52% of India’s copper. Rajasthan is the next leading producer with about 48% share. Copper is also produced in the Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.

ALUMINIUM  /  BAUXITE

Bauxite ore is used for obtaining aluminium that is formed by decomposition of rocks rich in aluminium silicates.Bauxile is a clay like substance from which alumia extract firstly and later alumina become aluminium. Aluminium is lightweight yet strong and hence is used in a variety of applications. Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni are the main areas of bauxite deposits. Odisha is the leading producer of bauxite in India. Panchpatmali in Koraput district is the most important centre of bauxite deposit in Odisha.Oddisha is the largest producer of Bauxite in India (34.97%)

NON METALIC MINERALS.

The basic characteristic of non –metallic minerals is that they do not yield new products on melting. Mica and limestone are the important non-metallic minerals.

MICA

Mica is a mineral which is made up of a series of plates or leaves. The mica sheets can be so thin that a thousand of them can be layered into a few centimeter thick mica sheet. Mica has excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage. Mica is widely used in electric and electronic industries.

Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer of mica. Ajmer in Rajasthan and Nellore in Andhra Pradesh are the other important producers of mica.

LMESTONE

 Limestone is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium

 and magnesium carbonates. It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological

 Formations. Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the    blast furnace.

HAZARDS OF MINING (Killer Industry)

Mining is a hazardous industry; both for the workers and for the residents. The Miners have to work under tough conditions where no natural light is available. There is always a risk of collapse of mine roof, inundation with water and fire. The areas around mines face the problem of too much dust from the mines. Slurry from mines damages the roads and the farmland. Houses and clothes become dirty more often than in other areas. Miners are at great risk of getting afflicted with pulmonary disorders. Cases of respiratory tract diseases are very high in mining areas.

CONSERVATION OF MINERALS

It takes millions of years for the formation of minerals. Compared to the present rate of consumption, the replenishment rate of minerals is very slow. Hence, mineral resources are finite and non-renewable. Due to this, it is important that we conserve the mineral resources.

ENERGY RESOURCES

1)      CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES: Firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal)

2)      NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES: Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Firewood and cattle dung cake: As per estimates, more than 70% of energy need in rural households is met by firewood and cattle dung cake. A decreasing forest area is making it difficult to use firewood. Dung cake can be put to better use in the form of manure and hence its use should also be discouraged.

COAL

India is highly dependent on coal for meeting its commercial energy requirements. Depending on the degree of compression during its formation, there are varieties of coal.

1. Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal. It is soft and has high moisture content. Neyveli in Tamil Nadu has the main reserves of lignite coal. This type of coal is used for electricity generation.
2. Peat: It has a low carbon content and low heating capacity and high moisture content.
3. Bituminous coal: Coal which was formed because of increased temperature and was buried very deep is called bituminous coal. This is the most popular coal for commercial use. High grade bituminous coal is ideal for use in metallurgy.
4. Anthracite coal: This is the highest quality hard coal.

In India, coal occurs in rock series of two main Geological ages. The Gondwana coal was formed over 200 Million years ago.

The tertiary deposits are about 55 million years old. The major sources of Gondwana coal are located in the Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhan). In this belt; Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro are important coalfields. Coal deposits are also present in the Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys.

Tertiary coal is found in the north-eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

PETROLEUM

Petroleum After coal, the next major energy resource in India is petroleum. Petroleum is a major source of  fuel for various uses. Petroleum also provides raw materials for various manufacturing industries; like plastic, textiles, pharmaceuticals, etc.

Most of the petroleum in India occurs in anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary age. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The intervening non-porous layers prevent the oil from rising or sinking. Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas usually occurs above the oil because it is lighter than oil.

Mumbai High produces about 63% of India’s petroleum, Gujarat produces 18% and Assam 16%. Ankeleshwar is the most important oil field in Gujarat. Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India –(1867 First Oil Field Discovered in Assam-MAKUN). Important oil fields of Assam are Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is found along with or without petroleum. It is used as fuel and also as industrial raw material. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari Basin. Gulf of Cambay, Mumbai High and Andaman Nicobar islands are also important areas with large reserves of natural gas.

The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassein with the fertiliser, power and industrial complexes in western and northern India. Natural gas is mainly used by the fertiliser and power industries. Now-a-days, use of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) is increasing as vehicle fuel in the country.

ELECTRICITY

Electricity is generated mainly by two methods; by running water which drives hydro turbines and by burning other fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines. Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, Kopili Hydel Project, etc. are major hydroelectric producers in the country. At present, there are over 300 thermal power stations in India.

NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy is obtained by altering the structure of atom. When the structure of an atom is altered, too much energy is released in the form of heat. This heat is utilised to generate electric power. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic power. These minerals are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan. The Monazite sand of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.

SOLAR ENERGY

 Photovoltaic technology is used to convert solar energy into electricity. The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur near Bhuj. Solar energy holds great promises for the future. It can help in minimizing the dependence on firewood and animal dung cakes in rural areas. This will also help in conservation of fossil fuels.

WIND POWER

India now ranks as a “Wind Super Power” in the world. The wind farm cluster in Tamil Nadu (from Nagarcoil to Madurai) is the largest cluster in India. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep are also important centres of wind power production.

BIO GAS

Bio gas can be produced from shrubs, farm waste, and animal and human waste. Biogas is more efficient than kerosene, dung cake and charcoal. Biogas plants can be set up at municipal, cooperative and individual levels. The gobar gas plants provide energy and also manure.

TIDAL ENERGY

Floodgate dams are built across inlets. The water flows into the inlet during high tide and gets trapped when the gate is closed. Once the tide recedes, the gates are opened so that water can flow back to the sea. The flow of water is used to run the turbine to generate electricity. A 900 MW tidal energy power plant is set up by the National Hydropower Corporation in the Gulf of Kuchchh.

GEO THERMAL ENERGY

We know that the inside of the earth is very hot. At some places, this heat is released on the surface through fissures. Groundwater in such areas becomes hot and rises up in the form of steam. This steam is used to drive turbines. Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy. They are; the Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga Valley in Ladakh.

  CONSERVATION OF RESOURCES

  In order to conserve energy, we must —

·         Use the public transport system more frequently.

·         Switch off electricity whenever not required.

·         Use power-saving devices.

·         Check the power equipment’s regularly.

·         Use non-conventional sources of energy more frequently.

PRINT CULTURE AND MODERN WORLD SUMMARY

PRINT, CULTURE AND THE 

MODERN WORLD

HISTORY(X)

CHAPTER 07

  THE FIRST PRINTED BOOKS

The earliest print technology was developed in China, Japan and Korea. From 594 AD onward, books were printed in China by rubbing paper against the inked surface of woodblocks. The traditional Chinese ‘Accordion Book’ was folded and stitched at the side because both sides of the thin, porous sheet could not be printed.

For a very long time, the imperial state of China was the major producer of printed material. The Chinese bureaucratic system recruited its personnel through civil services examinations. The imperial state sponsored the large scale printing of textbooks for this examination. The number of candidates for the examinations increased from the sixteenth century, and this increased the volume of print.

By the seventeenth century, the use of print diversified in China because of a blooming urban culture. Print was no longer limited to scholar-officials. Merchants used print in day-to-day life because they collected trade related information. Fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies of literary masterpieces and romantic play became the staple for the reading public. Reading acquired the status of a preferred leisure activity. Rich women began to read and many of them began publishing their poetry and plays.

PRINT IN JAPAN

The Buddhist missionaries from China introduced hand-printing technology into Japan around 768 – 770 AD. The Buddhist Diamond Sutra which was printed in 868 AD was the oldest Japanese book. Libraries and bookstores were packed with hand-printed materials of various types. These included books on women, musical instruments, calculations, tea ceremony, flower arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.

PRINT COMES TO EUROPE

Marco Polo was a great explorer from Italy. He returned from China in 1295 and brought the knowledge of woodblock printing along with him. Thus, printing began in Italy and travelled to other parts of Europe. Vellum was still the preferred material for printing the luxury editions because printed books were considered as cheap vulgarities. Vellum is a parchment made from the skin of animals.

By the early fifteenth century, woodblocks were widely used in Europe to print various materials. It almost replaced the books made by calligraphy.

GUTENBERG AND THE PRINTING PRESS

Gutenberg was the son of a merchant. Since his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses. He also learnt the art of polishing stones, and became a master goldsmith and also became an expert in creating lead moulds. Such moulds were used for making trinkets.

Gutenberg used his knowledge to bring innovation to the print technology. He used the olive press as the model for the printing press and used the moulds for casting the metal types for the letters. Gutenberg perfected the system by 1448. The first book printed by him was the Bible.

Initially, the printed books resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout. In the hundred years between 1450 and 1550, printing presses were set up in most parts of Europe. The growth of the print industry was so good that about 20 million books appeared in the European markets in the second half of the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century, this number went up to about 200 million copies.

THE PRINT REVOLUTION AND ITS IMPACT

A New Reading Public:

With the print technology, a new reading public emerged. Books became cheaper because of printing. Numerous copies could now be produced with much ease. This helped in catering to an ever growing readership.

Access to books increased for the public. This helped in creating a new culture of reading. Literacy level was very low till the twentieth century in Europe. Printers kept in mind the wider reach of the printed work. Popular ballads and folk tales were published which could be listened by even the illiterates. Literate people read out stories and ballads to those who could not read.

RELIGIOUS DEBATES AND FEAR OF PRINT

Print created an opportunity of a new debate and discussion. People began questioning some established notions of religion. For the orthodox people, it was like a challenge as they feared the disturbance in old order. In fact, the Protestant Revolution in Christianity began because of print culture. The Roman Church felt troubled by new ideas which raised questions about the existing norms of faith. It even started to maintain an Index of Prohibited Books from 1558.

THE READING MANIA

The literacy levels improved through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe. By the end of the eighteenth century, literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 percent in some parts of Europe. The growth in literacy level created a reading mania among people. Booksellers employed pedlars who roamed around villages to sell books. Periodicals, novels, almanac, etc. formed the staple for the reading mania.

Ideas of scientists and philosophers became more accessible to the common people. New ideas could be debated and shared with a wider target audience.

PRINT CULTURE AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Many historians are of the view that print culture created the conditions which led to French Revolution. Some of such conditions are as follows:

• Print popularized the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers. These thinkers gave critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. Voltaire and Rousseau were among the prominent Enlightenment thinkers.
• Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. General public began to discuss the values, norms and institutions and tried to re-evaluate the established notions.
• By the 1780s, there was a surge in literature which mocked the royalty and criticized their morality. Print helped in creating an image of the royalty that they indulged in their own pleasure at the expense of the common public.

  THE NINETEENTH CENTURY-PRINT

There was vast leap in mass literacy in Europe in the nineteenth century. This brought a large numbers of new readers among children, women and workers. Many books were written and printed keeping in mind the sense and sensibilities of children. Many folk tales were rephrased to suit the children. Many women became important as readers as well as writers. The lending libraries which had been in existence from the seventeenth century became the hub of activity for white-collar workers, artisans and lower middle class people.

FURTHER INNOVATIONS

Richard M. Hoe of New York perfected the power-driven cylindrical press by the mid-nineteenth century. This could print 8,000 sheets per hour. Offset press was developed in the late nineteenth century. This could print up to six colours at a time. Electrically operated presses came in use from the turn of the twentieth century. This helped in accelerating the printing process. Many other innovations took place during this period. All the innovations had a cumulative effect which improved the appearance of printed texts.

NEW STRATEGIES TO SELL BOOKS:

• Many periodicals serialized important novels in the nineteenth century.
• In the 1920s in England, popular works were sold in cheap series, called the Shilling Series.
• The dust cover or book jacket is a twentieth century innovation.
• Cheap paperback editions were brought to counter the effect of the Great Depression in the 1930s.

   INDIA AND THE WORLD OF PRINT

The Portuguese missionaries were the first to bring printing press to Goa in the mid-sixteenth century. The first books were printed in Konkani language. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in Konkani and Kanara Languages. Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin. They printed the first Malayalam book in 1713.

From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette. It was a weekly magazine. Hickey also published a lot of gossip about the senior officials of the Company. Governor General Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey. Warren Hastings encouraged the publication of officially sanctioned newspapers to protect the image of the colonial government.

The first Indian newspaper was the weekly Bengal Gazette which was brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.

Print culture helped in initiating new debate on religious, social and political issues in India. Many existing religious practices were criticized. Raja Ram Mohan Roy published Sambad Kaumudi from 1821 to criticize the orthodox views in the Hinduism. The Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika to counter his opinions. In 1822, publication of two Persian newspapers began, viz. Jam – i- Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. Bombay Samachar; a Gujarati newspaper appeared in the same year.

In North India, the Ulama began to publish cheap lithographic prints which contained Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures. They also published religious newspapers and tracts. The Deoband Seminary was founded in 1867. It published thousands upon thousands fatwas about proper conduct in the life of Muslims.

Ramcharit manas of Tulsidas was printed from Calcutta in 1810. From the 1880s, the Naval Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published many religious texts in vernaculars.

Print helped in bringing the religious texts within reach of the common masses. It also helped in shaping the new political debate. It also helped in connecting the people from various parts of India; by carrying news of one part to another.

NEW FORMS OF PUBLICATION

Initially, people got to read the novels which were written by European writers. But people could not relate to those novels because they were written in the European context. Many writers emerged who began to write in the Indian context. People could correlate with the theme and characters of such novels in a better way. Many other new forms of writing also came into origin; like lyrics, short stories, essays about social and political matters, etc.

A new visual culture was taking shape by the end of the nineteenth century. Many printing presses started to produce visual images in large numbers. Works of painters; like Raja Ravi Varma were produced for mass circulation through printing.

By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were being published in journals and newspapers. They commented on various social and political issues.

WOMEN AND PRINT

Many writers wrote about the lives and feelings of women. Due to this, readership among middle-class women increased substantially. There were many liberal husbands and fathers who stressed on women’s education. While some women got education at home, some others went to schools as well. This was the time, when many women writers also began to express their views through their writings.

Conservative Hindus and Muslims were still against women’s education. They thought that a girl’s mind would be polluted by education. People wanted their daughters to read religious texts but did not want them to read anything else.

While Urdu, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi print culture had developed early, Hindi printing began seriously only from the 1870s.

PRINT AND THE POOR PEOPLE

Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth century Madras towns. These books were sold at crossroads so that poor people could buy them. Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century which helped in increasing the access to books. Many rich people set up library in order to assert their prestige in their area.

PRINT AND CENSORSHIP

Before 1798, the colonial rulers were not too concerned with censorship. Initially, the control measures were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of Company misrule.

After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878. The Act provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. In case of a seditious report, the newspaper was warned. If the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.

NCERT PRINT, CULTURE AND THE MODERN WORLD

N C E R T PRINT, CULTURE AND THE 
MODERN WORLD

HISTORY (X)

CHAPTER 07

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS

Q 1 Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.

Ans: Print culture helped in developing a culture of dialogue among people. Ideas of social reform could be spread in a better way. Gandhiji spread his ideas of swadeshi in powerful way through newspapers. Many vernacular newspapers came up in India. These helped in spreading the message of nationalism to majority of the Indian masses. Even in spite of repressive measures print culture was a revolution which could not be stopped.

Q 2 Give reasons for the following:

Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.

Ans: Marco Polo returned to Italy from China in 1295 and brought with him the knowledge of woodblock printing.

Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.

Ans: Martin Luther’s criticism of Roman Catholic church reached a large section of masses because of print. Hence he was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.

The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century.

Ans: Because of print new interpretation of Bible reached to people and they started questioning the authority of church. Due to this the Roman Catholic Church began keeping and index of Prohibited books from the mid – sixteenth century.

Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.

Ans: The power of the printed word is most often seen in the way governments seek to regulate and suppress print. The colonial government kept continuous track of all books and newspapers published in India and passed numerous laws to control the press. Because of this Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.

Q 3 Write short notes on following:

·         The Gutenberg Press

Ans: Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew up on a large agricultural estate. From his childhood he had seen wine and olive presses. Subsequently, he learnt the art of polishing stones, became a master goldsmith, and also acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used for making trinkets. Drawing on this knowledge, Gutenberg adapted existing technology to design his innovation. The olive press provided the model for the printing press, and moulds were used for casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet. By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system. The first book he printed was the Bible. About 180 copies were printed and it took three years to produce them. By the standards of the time this was fast production.

·         Erasmus’s idea of the printed book

·         Ans: Erasmus thought that books were not good for sanctity of scholastic knowledge. He was of the opinion that printed books would glut the market with contents which will do more harm than good to society. Because of this the value of good content would be lost in the din.

·         The Vernacular Press Act

Answer: In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed, modelled on the Irish Press Laws. It provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspapers published in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.

Q 4 What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:

WOMEN

Ans: Because of printing technique books became cheaper. Many hawkers started selling books from door to door. This created easy availability of books for majority of women. Apart from this many liberal males encouraged women from their families to read. Novels contained interesting descriptions of women’s lives. This created interest among women readers. Women, who were earlier cocooned inside their homes could now know about the outside world thanks to the print technology. This created a spurt of many women writers in India. It can be said that print culture not only created readers among women but also writers among them.

THE POOR

Ans: Very cheap small books were brought to markets in nineteenth-century Madras towns and sold at crossroads, allowing poor people traveling to markets to buy them. Public libraries were set up from the early twentieth century, expanding the access to books.

From the late nineteenth century, issues of caste discrimination began to be written about in many printed tracts and essays. This helped in bringing these issues to the forefront of public consciousness.

Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to write much about their experiences. But some workers took initiative to write stories about their conditions. These narratives contained issues related to class oppression. So worker’s problems also came to the fore.

Q 5 What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to reformers?

Answer: From the early nineteenth century there were intense debates around religious issues. Different groups confronted the changes happening within colonial society in different ways, and offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different religions. Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate. A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.

This was a time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry. In Bengal, as the debate developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated, circulating a variety of arguments. To reach a wider audience, the ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people.

Q 6 Why did some people in eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?

Ans: Because of print books became affordable for masses. This helped in spreading revolutionary ideas to a vast section of society in a more efficient way. Many contemporary thinkers, like Martin Luther and Monochhio could fire people’s imagination because of help from print technology. Even for scientists it became easier to share knowledge and spread knowledge. So, people in eighteenth century Europe started thinking that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism.

Q 7 Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.

Ans: Not everyone welcomed the printed book, and those who did also had fears about it. Many were apprehensive of the effects that the easier access to the printed word and the wider circulation of books, could have on people’s minds. It was feared that if there was no control over what was printed and read then rebellious and irreligious thoughts might spread. If that happened the authority of ‘valuable’ literature would be destroyed. Expressed by religious authorities and monarchs, as well as many writers and artists, this anxiety was the basis of widespread criticism of the new printed literature that had began to circulate.

Example from Europe: Erasmus thought that books were not good for sanctity of scholastic knowledge. He was of the opinion that printed books would glut the market with contents which will do more harm than good to society. Because of this the value of good content would be lost in the din.

Example from India: Conservative Hindus believed that a literate girl would be widowed and Muslims feared that educated women would be corrupted by reading Urdu romances.

Q 9 How did print culture affect women in the 19th century India?

Ans: Because of printing technique books became cheaper. Many hawkers started selling books from door to door. This created easy availability of books for majority of women. Apart from this many liberal males encouraged women from their families to read. Novels contained interesting descriptions of women’s lives. This created interest among women readers. Women, who were earlier cocooned inside their homes could now know about the outside world thanks to the print technology. This created a spurt of many women writers in India. It can be said that print culture not only created readers among women but also writers among them.

Q 10 Describe the role of nationalist newspaper in spreading nationalistic feelings among the people in the early 20th century.

Answer: Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all parts of India. They reported on colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities. Attempts to throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest. This in turn led to a renewed cycle of persecution and protests. When Punjab revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India. Thus nationalist newspaper played important role in spreading nationalistic feelings among people in the early 20th century.

Q 11 How did the print culture help scientist and philosopher?

Ans: The ideas of scientists and philosophers now became more accessible to the common people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were compiled and published, and maps and scientific diagrams were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac Newton began to publish their discoveries, they could influence a much wider circle of scientifically minded readers. The writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also widely printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and rationality found their way into popular literature.

Q 12 Print did not only stimulate publication of conflicting opinions among different communities but also connected them in the 19th century India. Support this statement with examples.

Ans: From the early nineteenth century, as you know, there were intense debates around religious issues. Different groups confronted the changes happening within colonial society in different ways, and offered a variety of new interpretations of the beliefs of different religions. Some criticised existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered the arguments of reformers. These debates were carried out in public and in print. Printed tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature of the debate. A wider public could now participate in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of opinions.

Print did not only stimulate the publication of conflicting opinions amongst communities, but it also connected communities and people in different parts of India. Newspapers conveyed news from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.

Q 13 What do you understand by print revolution?

Ans: With the printing press, a new reading public emerged. Printing reduced the cost of books. The time and labour required to produce each book came down, and multiple copies could be produced with greater ease. Books flooded the market, reaching out to an ever-growing readership.

Access to books created a new culture of reading. Earlier, reading was restricted to the elites. Common people lived in a world of oral culture. They heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited, and folk tales narrated. Knowledge was transferred orally. People collectively heard a story, or saw a performance. Before the age of print, books were not only expensive but they could not be produced in sufficient numbers. Now books could reach out to wider sections of people. If earlier there was a hearing public, now a reading public came into being.

Q 14 How were ideas and information written before the age of print in India? How did the printing technique begin in India? Explain.

Ans: Age of Manuscripts: India had a very rich and old tradition of handwritten manuscripts – in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages. Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on handmade paper. Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated. They would be either pressed between wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well after the introduction of print, down to the late nineteenth century.

Beginning of Printing Technique in India: The printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid-sixteenth century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been printed in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works.

Q 15 How did printing press create a new reading public? Explain.

Ans. With the printing press, a new reading public emerged.

(i) Printing reduced the cost of books.

(ii) The time and labour to produce each book came down. Multiple copies could be produced

      easily.

(iii) Books flooded the market, reaching out to an ever growing readership.

(iv) It created a new culture of reading.

(v) Common people could not read books earlier, only the elite could. Common people heard

      a story or saw a performance collectively.

(vi) Instead of a hearing public now there was a reading public.

(vii) The rate of literacy in European countries was also low till the 20th century. Publishers

        reached out to people by making them listen to books being read out.

(vii) Printers published popular ballads and folktales, profusely illustrated. These were then

        sung and recited at village gatherings in taverns in towns. Oral culture thus entered print and          printed material     was orally transmitted, Hearing and reading public, thus became one.